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| WILD LIFE |
THE HISTORICAL
IMPORTANCE OF ANATOLIA FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF
LIVING THINGS AND ITS BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
As is well known the earth experienced four ice
in the last 1.8 million years which greatly
influenced the world of living things, fleeing
unfavourable conditions in the north, took
refuge in the Iberian peninsula, Southeast Asia,
and in Anatolia which then offered very
favourable survival conditions. Some of these
species returned north during periods between
the ice ages, while some evolved to adapt to the
new conditions of their environment. Others
remained in Anatoli by taking refuge in various
biotopes and underwent further differentiation.
In fact, several species of plants and animals
of northern origin are now found in Anatolia.
Between the ice ages Anatolia served as habitat
for species originating in the south and in the
east. For these reasons, Anatolia has
historically been and is currently a habitat of
species which originally came from the north,
the east and the south. It therefore is of
supreme importance in the understanding and
analysis of the flora and fauna of Europe,
Western Asia and parts of Africa. We might
indeed claim that studies of European and Asian
flora and fauna would be incomplete if they did
not take into account the biological diversity
offered by Anatolia, where the coexistence of a
rich variety of living things can be observed.
Additionally, during many historical perriods,
Anatolia served as a passageway between the
continents of Europe, Asia and Africa. A variety
of flora and fauna owe their geographical spread
to this passageway. For this reason, Anatolia
gains importance in the analysis of
zoo-geographical developments. The topography of
the Anatolian peninsula exhibits significant
variety where ecological factors change greatly
over very short distances. For this reason,
living things have evolved and differentiated
richly and have created a wealth of species and
sub-species. A number of such species and
subspecies have proven to be of economic value
to humanity and some will doubtless be of use in
the future. |
WHY ANATOLIA CAN BE
CHARACTERIZED AS A CONTINENT
This piece of land of 779 000 square kilometers,
located between Europe and Asia, serves as a
bridge between three continents, and is
surrounded on therr sides by seas with
substantially different characteristics. A large
variety of climatic zones co-exist due to its
topography. It might even be argued that
Anatolia is unique in the world for the great
number and variety of climatic zones in
proportion to its area.
During the geological era, around 300 million
years ago, in the time of the Pangea continent,
Anatolia's climate was much like that of the
tropics today. Seventy million years ago, or
towards the end of the second period (Mesozoic),
it acquired a sub-tropical climate. The current
climatic conditions came to exist in the middle
of the third period, or around thirty million
years before our time, and were consolidated in
the last few hundred thousand years.
In today's Anatolia there exists a rainy, humid
and mild climate in the North, especially north
of the Black Sea mountain range; a type of
Siberian climate with cold and dry winters in
the East; a hot and dry, desert-like climate in
the Southeast; a climate with hot and dry
summers and cold and snowy winters in the
interior regions; and a Mediterranean climate
with hot and dry summers and rainy winters in
the West and Southwest.
There are also several micro-climatic zones
within these regions, depending on altitude and
protectedness. Such differences may be
manifested over very short distances. For
instance in the Igdir plain in the East the
climate is close to the Mediterranean, while the
climate of the adjoining Agri Dagi and its
plateau is a variant of the Siberian.
Turkey is, and has been for a long time, located
in the Palearctic zone. For this reason, its
current bio-geographic composition and structure
may be seen as representative of Palearctic
flora and fauna. However, especially in the
Southeast and the East, the Influence of
oriental and Ethiopic (African) elements are
observable although this influence diminishes as
one goes north.
The Igdir-Aralik triangle and the Hakkari-Van
plateau exhibit the influence of Syrian desert
flora and fauna; the Hatay-Amanos bridge
exhibits elements of Africa. Elements of the
Mediterranean sone have arrived through
southwestern Anatolia, and European elements
through Thrace and partly over the Caucasian
range. This flow still continues.
Examples of such fauna are more commonly
observed in countries to the east of Turkey
(Iran and parts of Iraq) and those to the south
(for example, Syria and Palestine).
In the Northeast, there are examples of cold
steppe and even Siberian species. Mountains
transversing Anatolia and the impact of this
geography on the evolution of living things:
There are a number of mountain ranges in
Anatolia which constitute effective barriers
against the geographical diffusion of living
things, which therefore become significant in
geo-zoological analyses.
These obstacles are responsible for the
important differences that have arisen between
continenets from the point of view of biological
composition. They also are the reason for the
great diversity of species of flora and fauna
found in Anatolia.
The evolutionary variation of many groups of
living things was due to the effects of such
obstacles. Especially during the ice ages and
subsequent periods, these barriers prevented
passage to a great extent, and thereby limited
the diffusion and consequent variation of
populations. The most important of such barriers
are the eastern Taurus mountains, which separate
the southeastern Anatolian region from eastern
Anatolia, with its cold and dry steppe
characteristics; the western Taurus Mountains
which separate the Mediterranean littoral with
its Mediterranean climate from the interior
region of Anatolia with its dry, steppe climate;
the Black Sea range which separates the mild and
rainy Black Sea coastline from the dry region of
the interior and from the cold and dry eastern
Anatolian steppes; a series of mountains which
cut across Anatolia laterally (Binboga, Munzur,
Kargasekmez Mountains, etc.) that constitute the
Anatolian diagonal and separate eastern Anatolia
from western and Central Anatolia, and in fact,
divide the European continent at its southern
limit from all of Asia and Africa.
The Bosphorus and the Dardanelles also
constitute effective obstacles to the diffusion
of land and fresh water animals. Of secondary
importance are the partial barriers constituted
by Dinar, Baba Dag, etc. which divide the Aegean
region with its Mediterranean climate and
Central Anatolia characterized by its dry steppe
climate; the mountain ranges of Munzur,
Kargasekmez and Palandoken which constitute a
second barrier between eastern Central Anatolia
and northeastern Anatolia by defining the
southern limets of the Firat Valley; and kelkit
Mountains, which join in a narrow corridor
Central Anatolia and tha Kars-Erzurum plateau.
Other significant geographical features are
mountains which either serve as refugia or
represent extreme climatic character and
therefore constitute isolated habitats for a
variety of groups of living things. From the
west to the east, these are Uludag, Kaz Dagi,
Baba Dagi, Sultan Dagi, Akdag, Erciyes Dagi,
Ilgaz Dagi, Cilo Dagi, Süphan Dagi, Nemrut Dagi,
Great and Small Agri mountains.
Anatolia is dotted throughout by conical
mountains and plateaus. This geographical
feature implies an increaser reception of high
energy radiation which accelerates the process
of mutation and, therefore, would exceptionally
increase the degree of differentiation.
The legendary Agri mountain, both due to its
appearance and to its biological compositions,
occupies an almost island-like, privileged
position in eastern Anatolia. Hasan Dagi which
is shown here in June, is one of the most
biologically diverse mountains in Central
Anatolia. |
TURKEY'S UNDISTURBED
NATURE
Despite the unfavorable developments of recent
years, Turkey is one of the countries which have
most successfully conserved their ecological
structure.
Many species which have been conserved only
artifically by special measures in other parts
of the world, can still be found in many
localities of Anatolia, in the full beauty of
their natural habitat.
Turkish governments have come to the
understanding that the preservation of this
natural ecology in Anatolia, and thereby the
environmental conservation of many species in
their natural habitat, is of utmost importance.
With increasing sensitivity they have tried to
instill this environmental protection
consciousness both in the organs and agencies of
the state and at the level of public opinion. It
is possible that by the end of the century,
Turkey will be the only northern country where
one may see in their natural habitats, those
species that we know intimately, such as deer,
wolf, lynx, bear, gazelle, leopard, and many
species of birds and reptiles. Completely
natural forests and other vegetation cover may
also remain as their unique examples in Turkey.
Turkey is surrounded on three sides by seas. The
Black Sea on the north, which had until recently
been a rich invironment for sea life, is
unfortunately in the process of rapid decay, due
in part to the pollution from the less developed
littoral countries, but especially because of
the industrial waste deriving from central
European discharges into the Danube, which the
river deposits into the Black Sea. It should be
the historical task of all countries directly or
indirectly polluting this beautiful internal
sea, to begin without delay to take the
necessary measures to stop and reverse the
pollution.
The Marmara Sea which connects the Black Sea
wilayteggs. Among the more important of these
are Dalyan, Patara, the Göksu delta, Belek, and
Fethiye-Kekova, which have been designated as
Speciae recently implemented measures have not
been sufficient in reversing the trend in this
sea which serves as a passageway and an area for
the laying of eggs for much sea life.
The Aegean Sea on the West continues to remain
clean despite some local pollution.
The Eastern Mediterranean Sea still preserves
its environmental cleanness and species
diversity, although this diversity is not as
great as in other regions. The turkish
government has taken the necessary measures to
conserve this natural wonder which should be
considered as part of the common heritage of
humanity, and has prevented excessive industrial
development in the southern coastal area of the
country. |
WHY SHOULD WE PROTECT
THE ANATOLIAN ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT WITH
GREATER CARE THAN ANY OTHER LAND ?
Anatolia is essentially a rich museum. The
number of plant species found in all of Europe
has been estimated at 12 000 ; the number
discovered in Anatolia has already approximated
this magnitude and there are grounds to believe
that it will certainly surpass it as a result of
future research. In the case of animal species,
the estimates are that the number of species
found in Turkey is around 80 000, or about
one-and-one-half times the number found in the
continent of Europe. Besides, for the reasons
elaborated above, each species is represented by
a varity of sub-species and races, adding to the
existing wealth and diversity.
It should also be mentioned that Anatolia is one
of the most important and perhaps the most
important of passageways for birds migrating
between large land masses, in the north-south
and south-north, but sometimes in the east-west,
west-east directions. Twice a year, in its land
and water habitats, Anatolia offers hospitality
to these migrating birds, some of which also
reproduce here. With full consciousness of this
pattern, Turkish governments have started
intensive programmes in order to protect the
habitats, and especially the qetlands, which
accommodate these birds.
The principal reason, however, why its ecology
should be carefully protected is that, in
addition to animal species, Anatolia is the
birth place of many of the commercially
important plant species in the world. Many among
these now serve the economic needs of the human
race after having been genetically improved.
Examples of plant which are native to Anatolia
include wheat, chickpeas, lentils, figs,
cherries, almonds, apricot; many ornamental
plants including the tulip, crocus, and the
snowdrop. It might be argued that up to thirty
percent of field cropps originally evolved in
Anatolia. All this, of course, indicates that
the wild forms of many of these domesticated
plants, in various genetic compositions, may
still be found as the native plants of today's
Anatolia. Future research attemting to develop
more productive and more resistant breeds, as
well as bio-technology in need of genetic
material will rely closely on the conservation
of wild forms that currently exist in Anatolia.
Turkey has closed some of its most beautiful
coastal areas and bays to toursim in order to
protect sea turtles which find accommodation and
egg-laying opportunity only in a few places in
the world. These sea turtles (Caretta caretta
and Chelonia mydas) and the Nile turtle are now
being protected by exemplary legislation in
order to provide them with an environment in
which they can reproduce, although these
measures translate into a loss of much foreign
exchange through foregone tourism revenue. This
protection extends to the entire eastern
Mediterranean coast where the construction of
polluting industry is largely prohibited. It may
well be argued that the cleanest area of the
Mediterranean Sea is found in the southern shore
of Turkey. It is well known that biological
diversity has been preserved here, as can be
attested to by diving enthusiasts who witness
the clean waters teeming with natural life.
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THE SITUATION OF SEA
TURTLES IN TURKEY
Chelonia mydas and Caretta caretta are the two
sea turtle species which make their home on
Turkish coasts. Chelonia mydas is generally
found on a few beaches in the eastern
Mediterranean (Kazanli, Akyatan, Samandagi);
while Caretta caretta is commonly found on
almost all the other beaches in the area.
Akyatan is the process of being designated as a
Nature Preserve.
There are seventeen beaches on Turkey's
Mediterranean coast where sea turtle have been
found to lay eggs. Among the more important of
these are Dalyan, Patara, the Göksu delta, Belek,
and Fethiye-Kekova, which have been designated
as Special Environmental Protection Zones.
Attention is also being paid to beaches other
than those found the two designations. For
instance, Kazanli and Kizilot areas have been
discovered to contain a large number of nests
and it would seem that these two beaches too
will have to receive the status of protected
zones.
The attempts of the Environmental Ministry for
the protection of these turtles have been useful
not only for their actual protection but also
because they have resulted in raising the
environmental consciousness of the public.
Egg-laying areas of two important sea turtle
species (Caretta caretta and Chelonia mydas)
have been put under strict protection. The
soft-shelled, (Trionyx triunguis triungularis)
which is also rather rare, is under protection
in Köycegiz as well.
Turkish governments have also implemented
various measures of protection in Birecik where
the bald ibis (Geronticus eremita) lays eggs.
The population of bald ibis has been in decline
and the species is in danger of extinction.
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TURKEY, A PLANT
PARADISE
a) Turkey is endowed with a rich
diversity of family, genera and species of
plants. It is, in fact, the richest country in
Europe as well as among its neighbouring
countries, from the point of view of plant
taxonomy. The table below presents a comparison
of Turkey and the continent of Europe in their
respective wealth in flora:
Family Genera Species
Europe 203 1541 12000
Turkey 163 1225 9000
Turkey is accepted to be the primary or the
secondary genetic center for some plant groups
at the level of genus or species. The following
are among the genera whose genetic center is
considered to be in Turkey: Achillea, Allium,
Astragalus, Centaurea, Draba, Iris, Salvia,
Verbascum.
b) Turkey exhibits a rich diversity of
wooded plants as well. Many of the tree and bush
species which are endemic to and found
frequently in mild climatic zones also grow in
Turkey. These constitute single-species or
mixed-form forest areas. Animals living in such
forest areas present a parallel diversity
depending on the specific features of the
forests. Quercus is an important example of a
genus of tree that grows in Turkish forests.
Eighteen species of this genus grow naturally in
Turkey , two of which (Q aucheri and Q vulcanica)
are native to the area, while in all of Europe
there are 27 species. Turkey is also noteworthy
for the presence of woody Rosacaea group. The
Amygladus, Crataegus, Prunus, and Pyrus genera
of this family are well represented by various
species, some of which are native to the
country. The large number of species of fruit
trees and their absolute volume when compared to
other Middle Eastern countries also suggests
that such fruits might have originally evolved
in Turkey.
c) Turkey's wealth in plants is apparent
in the fact that 3000 out of the 9000 flower
plants are endemic to the area. This exceeds the
total number of endemic species found in Europe
(2500) and underline the ecological importance
of the country. In addition to this rich
diversity of flora, Turkey is also considered to
be the genetic center for certain cultivated
plants, some of which are: Amygladus=almond,
Pyrus=pear, Avena=oats, Hordeum=barley, Secale=rye,
Triticum=wheat, Ficus=fig, Vitis=grapevine,
Pisuum=peas, Vicia=broadbeans, vetch, Linum=linen,
Allium=onion, garlic, leeks, Punica=pomegrenate,
Ceracus=cherry, sour cherry. There are also some
plants found in enclaves, such as Liquadambar
orientalis and Dorystoechas hastata, which are
relic distributions of the tertiary period.
These grow in the southeastern corner of Turkey.
d) With its rich Alpine, or high-mountain
flora, Turkey constitutes a link between central
and southern Europe on the one hand and the
Irano-Turanian plant zone on the other.
e) From the point of view of its plant
geography Turkey belongs in the Holarctic zone,
but with the distinction that elements from
three different groups of the flora of this zone
(Irano-Turanian, Mediterranean, and
Euro-Siberian) can be found in it. For this
reason, from the point of view of plant
diversity, Turkey presents the characteristics
of a continental land mass rather than a
country.
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AN OVERVIEW OF
VEGETATION
The most commonly encountered types of
vegetation in Turkey are shrubs, needle-leaf or
deciduous forest trees, and steppe-type
vegetation. Less frequent formation also exist
owing to the extent of the ecological
differentiation.
There is a great variety of forests ranging from
cone-bearing, needle-leaf evergreen forests to
forests with deciduous trees belonging to the
mild climatic zone. There are also gallery-type
forests along rivers in Central and Eastern
Anatolia. There are single-species forests of
both evergreens and deciduous trees, and also
mixed forest formations. The most frequently
occuring evergreen forests consist of Pinus
brutia, and P. nigra subsp. pallasiana, which
are found mostly in the Mediterranean coastal
belt. Other needle-leaf forest trees are Pinus
sylvestris and Abies nordmanniana (in northern
Anatolia), A. cilicia (on the Taurus mountain
range), Cedrus libani (also on the Taurus), and
Picea orientalis (on the north-eastern mountain
range), either in single- or mixed-species
formation.
The most commonly occuring deciduous forest
trees are Fagus orientalis (in northern and
western Anatolia) and various Quercus species
which are widespread. These trees are more often
found in single-species forests, but may also be
seen in mixeed formations. Other common trees,
mostly seen in mixed forests, are Castanea,
Acer, Fraxinus, Tilia, Sorbus, Carpinus, Alnus,
Platanus, Salix, and Populus.
Of great interest among forest trees is the
liquidambar tree (Liquidambar orientalis) which
is a relic of the tertiary period. This species
is concentrated in the humid valleys of
southeastern Turkey where the water table is
close to the surface. The diffusion of this
species is very limited; the only other location
in the world where the liquidamber tree grows is
a small nimber of Aegean islands, although it is
known that its incidence was very wide during
the tertiary period.
Phoenix teophrastii (date) has recently been
discovered growing in some bays in the Datca
Peninsula, the southwestern corner of Anatolia.
Until its discovery in Turkey, this tree was
thought to exist only on the island of Crete.
Twenty-six percent of Turkey's surface area (20
million hectares) is covered by forests. 9
million heacters of the forest is in good
condition, while 11 million hectares has
degenerated. Most of the forest land is natural
forests; this is in contrast to European
countries where the extent of the natural forest
is very small (only 5%). Attempts at
afforestation have accelerated in recent years
with a target of 300 000 hectares of forest
trees to be planted per year.
Turkey's forest land is found on the mountains
bordering the Black Sea, Marmara, the Aegean,
and the Mediterranean, and is located in an
altitude belt of 0 to 2000 meters. Central and
eastern parts of the country are much less
heavily forested. Small concentrations of
needle-leaf forests (Pinus nigra and P.
sylvestris) are found in some protected locales
of Central Anatolia. In both regions, however,
the most common forest trees are species of the
Quercus family.
Some forest trees occur in enclaves outside of
the area of their usual diffusion. A most
striking example is the case of Fagus orientalis
which grows in forests on the famous Amanos
mountain range in eastern Mediterranean, and on
some mountains in the Adana area. Both these
enclaves are outside the area of its normal
diffusion which are the mountains of the Black
Sea region, such as in Artvin and Coruh valley.
Some trees and bushes such as the Platanus
orientalis and the Punica granatum, grow in
river valleys in the Black Sea region where they
find a suitable environment, and in vallays in
eastern Anatolia.
Maquis shrubs are most commonly seen in the
littoral areas of the Mediterranean, the Aegean,
and the Marmara seas, in the altitude range of 0
to 1000 meters. They are found in the Black Sea
region as well but in a discontinuous fashion
and in enclaves. Some maquis-type shrubs are
found in the interior regions along river beds,
following the course of rivers from the sea up
to their sources.
Steppe-type vegetation is more common in the
Central and Eastern Anatolian regions. If
steppe-type vegetation and Alpine or
high-mountainous vegetation, which show a
physiognomic resemblance, are grouped together,
this type of formation is also found in the
mountains of southern and northern Anatolia, in
altitude ranges above 2000 meters. It is
widespread in the dry and cold climatic zone,
although anthrogenic, or man-made destruction is
clearly visible.
In the low and flat areas where this type of
vegetation can be seen, the Artemesia (wormwood)
and Thymus (thyme) species are common. Also
found are species belonging to the Graminea
genus and other typical steppe species which do
not occur in other regions. In higher altides
and hill slopes the Astragalus species (tragacanth
shrub), Onobrychis cornuta, and Acantholimon
species become more common. Within these
categories, Genista, Thymus, Verbascum, Phlomis,
Salvia, Cousinia, Stachys, Siderits, and other
genera are represented through the presence of a
large number of species. In places which have
not suffered from over-grazing, the Graminea
species (stipa, festuca, avena etc.) are
especially visible because of their relative
height and extensive occurrence.
Within the steppe-type vegetation group, the
composition of plants varies between the eastern
and western parts of the country. The species
composition of high mountainous vegetation also
varies between northern and southern mountain
ranges.
In addition to the most commonly occurring plant
types mentioned above, there are also
communities of flora which are found under
special ecological conditions: these consist
mostly of hydrophilous plants and halophytes
(plants growing in salt marshes).Species of the
Cyperaceae and Juncaceae genera predominate
among the hydrophilous plants of the wetlands
while species of the Chenopodiceae genus
predominate in salt marshes. The environs of the
Salt Lake in Central Anatolia are especially
rich in endemic halophytes. |
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